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INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 4
FOCUS . . . . . . 5
THE IERD .
Phase One: Leadup Activities . . . . . . . . . 6
Phase Two: Central International Event (CIE)
Phase Three: Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
THE VOICES OF RURAL PRACTITIONERS SERIES . . . . . . . . .
8
WHY IS RURAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDED? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
THE OVERVIEW BOORLET 12
LEARNINGS ABOUT HOW DEVELOPMENT TARES PLACE . . . . . . . . 13
DEVELOPMENT IS AN EVOLVING JOURNEY . . . . . . . . . . 14
DEVELOPMENT IS A MULTIFACETED REALITY . . . . . . . . 15
DEVELOPMENT IS A PARTICIPATORY PROCESS . . . . . . . 16
DEVELOPMENT IS ENABLED BY A CATALYTIC DYNAMIC . . . . 18
THE FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES OF PRACTITIONERS . . . . . . . . 20
Interrelationship of the Objectives
SHARED RESPONSIBILITY/SHARED LEADERSHIP . . . . . . 21
Operational Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Implications 23
Concerns
ECONOMIC SELFDEPENDENCE
Operational Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 24
Implicatons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Concerns 26
SELFIDENTITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Operational Characteristics
Implications 28
Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
ACCELERATING FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
PROJECT LEARNING PROCESSE$ ..
Intent
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Concern .
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
WOMEN'S ADVANCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Intent .
Content .
Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Options
PARTICIPATORY ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES . . . . . . . 35
Intent 36
Content
Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Options
BROADENING HORIZONS\\
Intent
Content
Concerns
Options
DEVELOPING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINKAGES
Intent
Content
Concerns
Options
DEVELOPING APPROPRAITE TECHNOLOGY
Intent
Content
Concerns
Options
TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS
AGRICULTURE
RURAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH CARE
HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENT
The VOICES OF RURAL PRACTITIONERS series is one attempt to weave together the insights and experiences of many people participating in the process of rural development in different parts of the world. Written from a microlevel perspective, the focus is on approaches practitioners have used successfully.
The International Exposition of Rural Development (IERD) programme was organised to call attention to significant accomplishments in rural development occurring as the result of people working in local communities around the world. The information for this series has come from varying sources and events associated with the three year programme of the IERD including: Rural Development Symposia held in many of the 55 participating nations during 1982 and 1983 and the Central International Event (CIE) of the IERD held in New Delhi during the 5th to the 15th of February 1984. Over 1000 projects participated in the first two years of the IERD. The CIE in New Delhi had over 550 delegates, including representatives of 300 participating projects, gathered to share approaches that work.
The projects and materials of reference in this series are meant to be representative and not exhaustive of the wealth of valuable information available. Although explicit reference has not been made to all available information, much of it has contributed greatly to the thinking in this documentary report. Readers will note a greater abundance of illustrations from Africa, North America and India. This is indicative of the more extensive documentation that was available to the team composing this report. Note too that projects and many quotations are identified with an alphanumeric code referring to the IERD DIRECTORY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS published separately.
Grateful acknowledgement is due the practitioners and participants in the IERD, the Global Advisory Board, the National Steering Committees and Advisory Boards and the supporting sponsors, individuals and organisations.
The IERD cosponsors are:
International Council of Women
United Nations International Children's Education Fund
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Fund for Population Activities
World Health Organisation
Agriculture Finance Corporation
Association of Indian Engineering Industry
Canara Bank
Special Technical Support:
Control Data Corporation
Organising Sponsor:
The Institute of Cultural Affairs International
FOCUS
"A spotlight needs to be placed on the success
in development so that hope in the future can be founded realistically
on past experience (IERD Concept Paper: IMAGE, Vol.XII No.l, April
1983, The Institute of Cultural Affairs).
Progress in world development over the last four decades is impressive. The populous nation of India has achieved selfsufficiency in food. Smallpox has been globally eradicated. The average life expectancy in developing countries has increased from 42 to 54 years and there is evidence of improvement in the material standards of living. The proportion of literate adults has risen from 30 per cent to 52 per cent in the world as a whole
These historically important successes have been years in the making and have grown out of the involvement of millions of people and the expenditure of billions of dollars. Yet, they seldom appear on the front page of today's newspapers. In the press of urgent needs today, perspective is lost and genuine accomplishments go unrecognised. In fact, the current pessimism and mood of failure often obscures these achievements.
The means of development have been created. Those who have laboured in the task of development now seek to generate momentum within the rural areas of each nation. They seek to release a nation's greatest resource, its own people. As Mr. Tarzie Vittachi (UNICEF) points out, " It will no longer work to try to spread messages that work. Those messages spread horizontally from village to village.. If something works in this village, you don't need a newspaper to spread it to the next village. It spreads because it works. The real test of our work is whether it is spreading laterally."
THE IERD
This need for sharing successful or effective approaches
in rural communities was met by the Institute of Cultural Affairs
International in organising the International Exposition of Rural
Development. The primary aim of the Exposition is to accelerate
the replication of tested methods and models of rural development.
The format of the Exposition is a three year series
of events in fiftyfive nations. A Central International
Event (CIE) was held in India during the 5th to the 15th of February
1984. It was intended as a global process within which field workers,
community leaders and representatives from funding agencies, government
and nongovernment organisations could meet and share their
knowledge of rural development. The theme of the Exposition, "Sharing
Approaches That Work", prompted a wide variety of activities
in each participating nation.
Phase One: Leadup Activities
The exposition comprises three phases. Phase One began in September 1982 with each nation establishing a National Steering Committee responsible for that nation's participation in the three year programme. The activities included:
Promotional events and media coverage directed toward increasing awareness and interest in rural development.
Rural development symposia designed to identify successful development efforts for documentation.
Documentation of local initiative projects and their supporting linkages which would accelerate other efforts.
Preparation of exhibits for presentation in New Delhi.
Selection of delegates to represent their nation in India.
Appropriate national and international funding
arranged.
The National Steering Committees planned and organised
over one hundred rural development symposia, documented over 300
projects through project description labs and selected the delegates
to participate in the CIE. The symposia provided opportunities
for local people, rural development practitioners and representatives
of government, public and private organisations, to discuss their
project experience and particularly the factors identified as
influencing effective projects. They varied from very local events
to statewide or national meetings.
Phase Two: Central International Event
The Central International Event (CIE) in India was
attended by six hundred and fifty representatives from fifty five
countries. Seventy percent of these delegates were rural development
practitioners. The delegates came to India not to make speeches,
but to meet their counterparts from other projects and other countries,
talk with them, listen to them, and share their experiences about
the approaches that have been working. One highlight for the delegates
at the IERD plenary was the field visits. They travelled in team
to 30 rural development projects in 10 states in India. They spoke
with project leaders and local villagers. During these visits,
delegates had the opportunity to look at their own project experience
in dialogue with the perspective of local development in India.
The delegates were highly impressed by the accomplishments of
these efforts and the authentic struggle they had been through
and were honoured by the hospitality of their hosts. Each team
then created a report on the project they visited for presentation
at the New Delhi plenary.
The delegates to the CIE had the opportunity to hear
Shri Vasant Sathe, Minister for Fertilisers and Chemicals, Government
of India, who inaugurated the Central International Event. Shri
Sathe set the overall tone for the global symposium by emphasising
"It is obvious if we can solve the problems of these (disadvantaged)
people, the whole quality of life of the human race would improve."
Sir James Lindsay, Global Convenor of the IERD and President of
the ICAI; Dame Miriam Dell, President of the International Council
of Women; Mr. Goran Hayden, Ford Foundation Director for Eastern
and Southern Africa; Mr. Bernard Woods of the.World Bank; Dr.
David P. Haxton of UNICEF and Professor David Morley, consultant
on child development were the other principal speakers during
the exposition.
The various Rural Development Symposia held during
Phase One generated a large amount of information. A few weeks
preceding the CIE, this data which was organised into 18 categories
of "directions" and 12 "keystones". One of
the original objectives of the plenary event in New Delhi was
to test the directions and keystones in light of the experiences
of the representatives and the field visits made across India.
This was to generate a common statement of directions for the
future. However, by the end of the first two days it was apparent
that many thought they would benefit more from a direct exchange
of experience. Also, many of the delegates had not participated
directly in the symposium events. They felt that much more opportunity
for direct interchange was necessary.
A representative group of conference organisers and
delegates met to create a new schedule and ensure that the expressed
desire for changes in the plenary programme was met. As a result,
the first three days were revised to enable delegates to meet
in 12 interest groups. This brought about a change in the form
of the final product from a consolidated statement emerging at
the end of the conference to the creation of documentation that
would reflect the experiences and learnings expressed by the participants
as well as intrepret the mass of development information on their
behalf. Consequently, this documentation cannot be considered
to be a formal declaration of the delegate body as a whole.
Phase Three: Implementation
Phase Three of the IERD began with the meetings of the National Steering Committees. The programmes already planned include:
Rural Development Symposia.
Plans for presentation of the IERD Booklets, "Voices of Rural Practitioners", and discussion of the same for "Sharing Approaches That Work", analysing their own experiences and project direction in the light of the findings and providing feedback for documentation.
Planning for implementing successful approaches.
Utilising the forums already available for
spreading the message of the IERD.
VOICES OF RURAL PRACTITIONERS SERIES
One of the delegates' recommendations from the CIE
was that the findings on rural development, incorporating the
approaches that work, be published and made available to all participants.
This lead to the formation of the IERD Editorial Team which met
in Rome for two and a half months beginning on the 1st of April
1984 for researching the informative material presented during
the IERD phases one and two and organising it for presentation
in written form.
The team in Rome used the following information and
material: Project Description Lab reports. Field
visit reports. Records of interviews with delegates to
New Delhi. Literature from the project exhibits.
Interest group reports. Speeches of guests at the India
events. other materials made available during the CIE.
The team first agreed upon a research methodology
that would ensure having practitioners' experiences and views
articulated as faithfully as possible from the available materials.
It was decided to produce seven booklets on the subjects indicated
by the interest groups. The team believed that, rather than a
single, large book, the booklets would be more practical and useable
for development practitioners.
VOICES OF RURAL PRACTITIONERS series comprises a compilation of the illustrations, stories, insights, delegate interviews, project descriptions and practical steps of implementation that presents various facets of approaches to:
The Community Housing, Environment and Technology Economic and Commercial Diversification
Health Care
Integrated Approaches
Learning and Education Processes Managing Agriculture
Women and Development
The OVERVIEW provides a context for the booklets
and a summary of the contents.
It is expected that these booklets can be used during
Phase Three of the IERD to reach many more organisations and groups.
This process will help in "Sharing Approaches That Work".
Practitioners using these booklets are invited to provide feedback
to the Exposition Coordination Centre in Brussels, relating their
own experiences and reactions. This will help to make subsequent
editions of the booklets more useful to development practitioners.
Any comments and suggestions are welcomed (in particular, comments
on the booklet entitled, WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT. That booklet,
along with a slide show, will be presented at the, "End of
the Decade Conference on Women. to be held in Nairobi in 1985).
The expectation is that the VOICES OR RURAL PRACTITIONERS
series will be of value to practitioners in their daytoday
work as well as to executives and administrators.
It has been a pleasure for the Institute of Cultural
Affairs International to have been associated with all the organisations
and individuals involved. The Editorial Team has been grateful
for advice from delegates, members of the Global Advisory Board
and others. Because of the desire to get an initial document in
the hands of IERD participants as quickly as possible, the team
did not correspond with as many people as had been hoped. Any
errors or ommissions are the responsibility of the Editorial Team.
The opinions expressed in these booklets do not represent official
policy of any of the sponsoring organisations or individuals,
nor is there any representation of resolutions put forth by the
delegates. They are the team's analysis of the available material.
Much effort has been put forth to faithfully capture the experience
of the participants. It is important that all concerned make known,
to the IERD Coordination Centre in Brussels, the corrections and
modifications considered necessary.
"Despite the impressive level of economic growth
the developing world has achieved over the past quarter century,
some 800 million individuals remain caught up in absolute poverty,
a condition of life so limited by malnutrition, disease, illiteracy,
low life expectancy, and high infant mortality as to be beneath
any rational definition of human decency" (Robert McNamara,
Introduction to Poverty and Basic Needs, 1980).
The large majority of the poor live in rural areas:
"If we look at the broad history of development,
each decade has revealed new dimensions of the task: the 1940's
disclosed the need to transfer skills and technology; the 50's
showed the necessity of providing capital; the 60's brought the
initiation of local community organisation and participation;
and the 70's were marked by a movement toward a new international
economic order. Development was becoming a global concern which
pointed to overall solutions within a framework of new relations
between nations.
"During the 1980's, the pieces of the puzzle
are coming together: it is necessary to provide capital; it is
necessary to create adequate and appropriate internal and external
structures in order for development to take place. The 80's, marked
by a weakened economic base, are providing the occasion to trim
costs, to synthesise learnings and to articulate what works. It
is a time of refining development methods into effective tools.
The basic question remains. "How do we take
what we have learned about development and focus it on the plight
of the poorest within each nation and the globe?" (IERD Concept
Paper, Ibid).
Development means different things to different people.
There exists already a vast literature on the subject. Given the
variety of meanings covered by the term, the exposition chose
to highlight 'micro' development rather than 'macro' development
and development by the people rather than development for the
people. While appreciating the need for macro planning and the
role of government in improving the total infrastructure,
the Exposition examined these areas only insofar as they relate
to effective approaches discovered by practitioners.
The unique perspective the practitioners brought
to this discussion was that they looked art development while
standing inside the village, alive to the issues and context of
the village. There was a questioning of the dubious value of changes
that claim to be 'inevitable' necessities. For instance, "the
experience of living and working with the tribals has revealed
the truth that the perpetuation of the problem of poverty and
backwardness in the rural areas is the outcome of the modern values
of life and the policy of industrialisation. Undue importance
to individual progress, disregard for the physical labour and
so called 'small jobs' and the lack of a sense of community responsibility
has deprived the society of honest and sympathetic behaviour and
the will to share the life with others in the society. Raising
the standard of community health seems to be impossible as long
as the commercialisation of every aspect of life with its associated
irrational exploitation of the natural resources is upheld in
the society" (Agrindus Banawasi Sewa Ashram. SA2).
By contrast, other practitioners commented
on the healthy sense of community that exists in the so called
'developing' areas as an aspect that they would like to see continued
in the future. There are many advances and benefits present in
developed areas that are needed in villages. But a pivotal viewpoint
sees the developmental process where people need to become the
initiators of change rather than being beneficiaries of change
and where development flows from inside out rather than outside
in. This aspect was illustrated in the case of the Village of
Tsumago, Japan, where the community decided what the life style
and social patterns of their society could look like and then
created them (Conservation of Historical Environment, SP29).
The content and shape of development must be rooted
in the creativity of village people if the quality of the change
is to hold the values, insights and understanding of human community.
This places the practitioner in a role of facilitator or catalyst
who provides a process for people to design their development
rather than being one who prescribes what it should be.
However there is a legitimate place for some outside
intervention. Practitioners commented that, 'Certain formulae
work, certain structures are effective, at what stage do we change
the tradition.' The caste system, for instance, brings distress
to the weaker minorities yet it is a deep rooted tradition. So
is racial discrimination everywhere. In many nations it is often
only the intervention of a central government that affords security
to minorities who otherwise would be harassed by sections of the
majority population.
The practitioner is not an objective, neutral outsider
but a person who comes from a particular society, carries values
and assumptions characteristic of a particular background and
is perceived as such by the villagers. For the practitioner the
venture of development is often a personal discovery of who one
understands oneself to be, one's relationship to the rest of society
and the implications for one's own life style. In this sense the
action of the practitioner broadens from being a benevolence for
the underprivileged and instead becomes a responsible attempt
to help shape the socioeconomic environment in which she
or he, the village and the rest of the world live.
THE OVERVIEW BOOKLET
With 650 participants from 55 countries, representing
local communities, academic institutions, governments, nongovernment
organisations (NGO's) and business, there were many differences
of opinion about ideologies and definitions of development. The
Exposition process was more effective in enabling direct person
to person, project to project interchange than it was in drawing
together and stating a consensus on rural development. Additionally,
the delegates present also were more interested in direct interchange
and visiting local projects in India than in creating definitions
or debating issues. As expected, most were more interested in
practical rather than theoretical problems.
In this series of booklets there is a weaving together
of the words and deeds of practitioners and projects involved
in the IERDconcerning. This Overview Booklet is the beginning
of a process of drawing together the learnings about how development
takes place, the fundamental objectives of the practitioner, and
some of the accelerating factors pertinent to many different projects.
The booklet is not intended to be a summary of the other booklets.
It represents a pulltogether and summary of the themes and
experiences being expressed.
There are common threads discernable through Rural
Development Symposia, project documentation, and Project Documentation
Labs, India field visits, exhibited projects and interest group
reports. At least four basic learnings about how development takes
place have come up frequently in the material, and that these
lessons from experience have led practitioners to a new appreciation
of the interrelated human objectives of the task of development.
Further, it became apparent that at least six factors were mentioned
frequently as contributing to the accelerated achievement of these
human objectives of development. The following pages, therefore,
focus on Learnings, Objectives and Accelerating Factors.
LEARNINGS ABOUT HOW DEVELOPMENT TAKES PLACE
People and projects involved in the IERD represented
wide experience with the process of implementing practical change
in rural development. Most of those present were involved in small
projects working with several communities (Ahmedabad Study Action
Group in India, San Luis Valley Solar Association in the USA)
or in many cases single communities (Michaelston in the UK, Bangor
in the USA, Kokorobitey in Ghana). Only a few projects were of
large scale (Mahaweli Ganga in Sri Lanka, National Dairy Development
Board in India, Rural Multipliers Programme in Brazil). The majority
of delegates were involved in day by day implementation of efforts.
Some were in positions related to policy or large scale design
of rural development. In drawing together the IERD material, at
least four lessons of how the development process takes place
at the project level were noted broadly throughout the material
and have application in various functional divisions in rural
development.
Rural development occurs:
As an evolving journey. No set patterns or blueprints exist. Actual change in an actual rural situation means dealing with the actual constraints of that situation. Only when action begins do the real learnings take place. Every locale has its own starting point.
As a multifaceted reality. Development activity is not limited within a single sphere of expertise (health or agriculture or education) or a single sector perspective (Government, or NGO or local). "Single purpose" projects find themselves working far afield of their expertise in order to be effective and single sponsor projects seek assistance and cooperation from others.
AS a participatory process. Those who participate in the reality of development benefit from the fruits of that development. Similarly, those who participate in the human activity of development acquire the capacity to deal with the process of change and to respond creatively to new situations and conditions.
As a catalytic dynamic. Change is experienced as a flow of breakthroughs and consolidations as well as a straight line process of implementation.
The following pages illustrate these four lessons
with material from the IERD and the experience of participating
practitioners and sketch some of the implications of these lessons
for development practice.
DEVELOPMENT IS AN EVOLVING JOURNEY
"I have been learning from the farmers here.
Unless you are in that situation, where the farmer is, you forcibly
cannot come off with solutions; for them because the farmer has
unique problems that you may not realise living in the city. You
cannot formulate projects to bring about development of the farmer
when sitting in a place far away from a village. We decided that
we are going down tothe village, live among them, like peasants,
and work with them" (Interview, Gururaj Pagad, Asian Institute
for Rural Development, AIRD) (SA3).
In practice, development is an evolving journey.
No set patterns or blueprints exist. Actual change in a rural
setting means dealing with the actual constraints. Only when action
begins do real learnings begin. Every locale has its own starting
point.
At the project level, the emphasis of development
is on implementation and action. However, "it is (not) action
and action alone. The donkey is also working the whole day. You
must take time to sit back and think; what can we learn from each
other? How do we react to a broader spectrum (of ideas) than what
we have? The realm of ideas resides very much in the realm of
practice" (Interview, Dr. B.S. Khanna, AIRD, SA3).
On this journey, you start with where the people
are, what they are feeling about their needs and go from there.
This includes working with a variety of structures and alternatives
and also includes new learnings about what can actually be done
particularly in their situation. "Training should not be
don, way from the farmer, but at the village level. You won't
need to go in and do the demonstration at the training centre,
where the field has been plowed by the tractor. Come down to the
village level where the farmer has to use animals. He will see
it as the job he has to do everyday" (Interview, Silas Hungwe,
National Farmer's Association of Zimbabwe) (BA33).
This journey involves people understanding the changing
social milieu and the necessary development going on in the community
to meet the problems facing them. "People are aware that
the population is increasingthat is the first thing. The
second thing is their energy requirements in the village are not
being met. The forests are becoming smaller; and the food requirement
is becoming more; the rains are becoming less" (Interview,
Shyama Pagad, AIRD, Ibid).
This requires looking at the struggle with immediate
problems and looking from several perspectives. When that struggle
is linked with what is happening in the broader society ways can
be devised to effectively "move" on the situation.
In what way is a group of village people sitting
and deciding on what to do to improve their living conditions
inferior to a village plan prepared by an outside agency after
spending more money than the village will ever get to develop
itself. One can understand the sophistication in planning technology
at the national level where facts have to generalise, but not
at the grassroots and local level where it is the details which
matter. "Committed grassroots planning gets most support,
encourages a sense of responsibility and achieves the most lasting
development. We found that the best approach was to make use of
the natural common sense of the (people) in planning for the future
and taking decisions. It was also important for a set of priorities
to be established for sequence of emphasis, such as crops, education,
health and housing. We learned that people can do a tremendous
lot for themselves, but that voluntary and selfsacrificing
leaders were highly appreciated" ( field visit report, VASFA)
(SA20).
"People know best how development can be locally
implemented. The transfer of responsibility and decision to local
people will encourage leadership in equal and responsible involvement
of men and women in the process of planning for their village.
In CRHP (SA4) we saw the village women participate in the
creation of mediatools and methods for promotion of good
health awareness. Village health workers cure 78 per cent of the
medical cases. All sectors of the village community are engaged
in the process of planning through Farmers Club and Women's Club
and other cooperative structures. All villagers participate in
keeping the village clean and in good appearance. The whole village
is involved in the observation of health hazards. Local people,
even if semiliterate or illiterate, are fully capable of providing
to their village professional services if appropriately trained.
Even in remote areas where medical services are not available
it is possible to provide sufficient health services if the villagers
are involved and engaged in practicing appropriate health care"
(field visit report, Comprehensive Rural Health Project (CRHP)
Jamkhed) (SA4).
In the village of Tsumago, "Every day one representative
from every family must clean the roads in front of their house
at the same time. That is because it is a symbol. If everybody
doesn't cooperate the project will be destroyed. It is to symbolise
action" (Interview, Mr. Kawabata, Conservation of Historical
Environment in Tsumago) (SP29).
DEVELOPMENT IS ENABLED BY A CATALYTIC DYNAMIC
"For change to happen, there has to be an event
to change the course of the community and wake people up to their
possibility. This may be an outside influence or an event within
the community. The catalytic agent can be either an outsider or
a neighbour or a field demonstration. Once the value of change
is shown, (the people) are quite ready to accept it for themselves"
(field visit report, Comprehensive Rural Health Project, CRHP)
(SA4).
One field visit report brought to light that rural
community development, particularly among the disadvantaged sector,
implies a change in the attitudes of the community. This can be
accomplished by a catalytic agent who approaches the community
with an open mind, establishes rapport by living with the villagers
and adopts their idiom and life style. This catalyst can initiate
activities which bring about human resources development. This
could be done by a process of sensitising, dissemination of knowledge
and providing necessary skills through appropriate functional
educational and training.
"Moreover, a catalyst is supposed to organise
activity in the community for instance, by forming a village development
committee and by establishing the community fund which will enhance
their capacities in order to build up and sustain selfreliance.
While initiating development projects, a catalyst should gradually
transfer responsibility to the community. Again, he should play
a dynamic role in bringing about necessary changes in social attitudes,
particularly of primitive communities. This could be done by discerning
the value systems and even introducing an element of 'agitation/resistance'
which means creative confrontation. He can also act as an intermediary
between the community and differentagencies by initiating
developmental projects, continuously monitoring and evaluating
them, until the community is able to take over. Lastly, a catalyst
needs to encourage the use of local resources available, for example,
the use of natural fertilisers and crop rotation for better yields"
(field visit report, Xavier Institute of Social Services XISS)
(SA7).
As part of the catalytic process, "Pilot demonstrations
are vital as a means of introducing change in the rural areas.
The government will, for instance, go into a village and identify
one woman who is willing to be trained as a weaver. After receiving
her training, many of the village girls will want to learn the
new skill too. As weaving becomes established as a viable industry
for the women, the government will help them finance their businesses
(through easy bank loans). Their products are bought by the government
for marketing. Pilot projects are also used to demonstrate innovations
in farming.
Farm fairs and exhibits are held regularly in the
state so that villagers can see for themselves new grain crops,
and animals" (field visit report, Hisar District Development
Agency (DRDA), SA29).
The catalytic dynamic in development reinforces the
community's confidence that it is in charge of its own destiny.
Some projects judge their success not only by visible accomplishments,
but also by such intangibles as reducing dependency. One indicator
of the success of the project is the withdrawal of the catalytic
agent when the community is able to deal with its own problems
with courage and determination. The community has then outgrown
the need for direction.
Those engaged in rural development who operate from these learnings have different objectives or points of focus from development who operate from these objectives or points of focus from past. The data from the projects IERD indicates three fundamental objectives:
Shared Responsibility
Economic selfdependence.
Selfidentity.
Nothing replaces the need for adequate nutrition,
clean drinking water, proper shelter and legal rights for all
who live in rural areas. These other objectives come as an intensification
of these activities. Each is foundational to the process of development
over the long term. They are related to establishing the capacity
for initiating, implementing and sustaining development activities
within the village community itself.
Shared responsibility is
the shift in perspective from "the Ministry of Rural Development
is responsible", or "the District Officer is responsible",
or "the agency is responsible" for "development"
to, "we are responsible". The village community itself
is responsible and is aided and assisted by support structures.
It shifts the level of decision from the government offices to
the village, not structurally, but in terms of emphasis. If the
village or the group of poor farmers is responsible for the planning
and implementation of the project, its possibility of failure
is also theirs to deal with.
Economic selfdependence is
a shift from emphasising the increase of local cash income to
increased use of all local resources. The local people, whether
village residents or members of a special group, come to see the
value of their having greater control over all aspects of their
lives, a control that can only be obtained when the resources
are in their control
Selfidentity shifts
are similar. The focus is no longer on bringing the people up
to date or modernising them. Nor conversely is it on protecting
them from the modern world. Both of those are paternalistic attitudes.
The focus is on enabling reflection on their situation so that
they keep that which is valuable from their past and create the
new ways they decide are required to respond to the present and
the future.
Interrelationship of the Objectives
When rural infrastructure inputs (such as water supplies,
roads, irrigation, health and education) are discussed at the
macro level they need to be segmented. When development occurs
however, it affects the life of rural people or there is no reason
for it. Here there is an organic unity, not segmentation. The
three objectives therefore must be understood as three closely
interlinked facets. They are so closely interlinked that one cannot
be talked of without consideration of the other two.
From the perspective of shared responsibility, activities
that increase economic selfdependence call for greater assumption
of risk of the consequences on the part of members of the group.
This greater assumption of risk requires a new level of responsibility
shared among the people, or shared responsibility. This will not
happen if they have a limited sense of themselves as competent,
worthwhile individuals or communities.
From the perspective of economic selfdependence,
shared responsibility is an abstract concept unless related to
actual decisions about the community. Selfidentity cannot
be given expression unless the group decides who it is and what
it is about doing and allocates resources from that view point.
From the perspective of selfidentity, shared
responsibility will be meaningless if the people are unable to
see what binds them together as a people. Selfdependence
collapses into individual family pursuits of material gain unless
there is an understanding that links those people together in
efforts toward a common objective.
SHARED RESPONSIBILITY/SHARED LEADERSHIP
The perspective the IERD participants expressed in
development (of, by and for the people) makes the arena of shared
responsibility/shared Leadership central to any development effort
whatever the content of the programme. Although formal and informal
training programmes will contribute greatly, there is more to
it than just leadership development. Shared responsibility/shared
leadership is essential to sustainable growth and improvements
in the community.
Every programme can contribute to or weaken the objective
of a health programme which chooses as its main implementer someone
wellqualified from outside a village. That person may be
effective in dealing with disease, malnutrition and poor
sanitation. If the project organisation has the financial resources
to sustain such a system, it will be viable economically. And
such a project will be implemented more quickly than one based
on a village committee or localselected health worker. However,
a health project using a village health worker from within the
village as the base of a health system, or a village health committee,
enables the development of a leadership dynamic within the community
that can broaden its concern to all aspects of the community's
wellbeing. Rural development practitioners who focus on
the development of a team within the village to run any programme
are make strides for enabling selfconfidence in the village
and investing in the future capacity of the village to do its
own development.
Operational Characteristics
Increasing Involvement.
Creating a consciousness in the community that development is
a participatory dynamic and its success depends upon the inclusion
of more people including women. The group has the capacity to
invent ways of doing this.
Effective Implementation. Implementing
needed programmes (health, agriculture, literacy) in such a way
that the participants can then become increasingly selfreliant
while accomplishing the task.
Mutual Aid. Increasing
the sense of common concern for the welfare of everyone in the
community, particularly the poorer members.
Committed Core. Having
people who make a commitment to continuing the process of development
in their local area is crucial. They understand that this is a
process of encouraging participation, fostering selfconfidence
of the whole population, increasing economic selfdependence
of the community and ensuring that the basic needs of all are
being met. They know the need for constant enquiry and reflection.
They do this without necessarily holding formal leadership positions.
Emerges From the Task.
Those who engage in the work and carry the burden of thinking
and acting are the leadership of a developmental programme whether
they are the publicly named "leaders" or not.
Holds Group to Decisions.
An essential element of effectiveness is following through on
plans in spite of unanticipated or underestimated difficulties.
The cycle of planning, implementing, evaluating and replanning
must be completed for growth in understanding and effectiveness.
Shared Leadership. The
leadership style of projects, in which the values are selfdependence
and full participation, is that of a team. This includes the acquisition
of skills at enabling consensus, appreciation for the strengths
and weaknesses of coworkers and a sense of objectivity.
Transfers Information. Knowing
where and how to find information and communicate it in a way
that can be understood is essential.
Bridges. the Gap. Enabling
the linkage of the community with external resources requires
that some members become proficient at such relations on behalf
of the whole group.
Implications
The implications for practitioners of shared responsibility
are many. It means refusal at certain points to get engaged in
an issue but leaving it to the community to decide. It can mean
already established and capable community leaders sometimes absenting
themselves deliberately to force the emergence of new people who
are capable. It means more time spent on reaching a consensus
with a group. It means looking for every opportunity to subdivide
work and assign a small group to figure out the task and do it.
It means frequent discussions within the group that let them realise
what they are experiencing. It includes regular exposure to new
perspectives through interchange outside the village or group.
Concerns
The concerns for practitioners include:
The blocking of a programme by traditional leadership in circumstances where it is essential to honour these persons in order to respect the local culture.
The form of accounting to the whole group or community.
The training that produces commitment.
The authentic participation of all social groups in shared leadership: women and men, youth, elderly, poor and ethnic minorities.
The static image of "leader": how
to shift it, making leadership an expanding dynamic and shared
process.
ECONOMIC SELFDEPENDENCE
A group or community's identity and sense of capacity
to decide about its future are determined in large part by its
control over resources: building materials, food, technical knowledge,
credit, energy, equipment and communications links. Many of the
projects documented in the IERD showed innovation in creating
resources out of materials formerly thought to be waste, or creating
a skills base in the village out of "nontrainable" people.
Selfdependence was dealt with in these projects in ways
that do not enter most conventional macroeconomic calculations,
yet these innovations may be the most feasible ways for local
villages to move toward selfdependence. A house normally
costing US$70,000 was built for US$10,000 using waste materials
(SelfHelp Enterprises, NA22). A project in Kenya for
soil conservation and reforestation, the Greenbelt Movement (BA15)
uses handicapped people and school children as the human resources
for its efforts. A health project in Mexico, Piaxtla and Projimo
Projects (LA37) makes teaching materials out of sticks and
pieces of old rubber tire. UNICEF and WHO report how diarrhoea
can be treated in the village with water, local salts and a natural
sweetener.
Most of the IERD participants were very downtoearth
practical people. They used a certain approach because it worked.
Often they had started out from other perspectives. Doctors for
example who went to rural areas assuming more hospitals and fullytrained
medical professionals were needed, discovered that the most economical
proposition and the only viable one in the long run was villagebased
health care with the villagers doing 80 per cent to 90 per cent
of the work.
In food production there was also an emphasis on
greater selfdependence. For some, natural farming was simply
more practical. It cost less, and gave the farmer greater autonomy;
by relying on natural fertilisers and pesticides and crop rotation,
he controlled more of the inputs. Similarly, with animals or crops
grown for income, the emphasis was on smallscale activities
where the producer could control more of the factors. Development
focused in this direction produces people who are able to rely
less upon external financing.
Although the focus on selfdependence is essential
for selfidentity and shared responsibility to happen, it
also does not happen if these other two objectives are not also
taken seriously. An emphasis on selfdependence is an emphasis
on the group assuming greater responsibility sometimes in the
face of advice from outside urging on it inputs that would weaken
its move toward this objective. All this requires a united group,
thought through on its priorities and clear what kind of a programme
they intend to have.
Operational Characteristics
Local Resources Emphasis. Exploiting
the natural, human and technological resources of the community
in preference to dependence on outside inputs. Maximum use of
local resources makes for cheaper costs, greater accessibility
and a reinvestment in the community.
Equitable Local Control.
Controlling the resources, production, and distribution mechanisms
so that all in the community, tribal group or local area, benefit
and so that the people's priorities are achieved.
Secure Basic Needs. Providing
the security that allows people to live adequately and not be
tempted or forced to migrate to the city in the hope of a better
livelihood.
Human Resource Investment. People
are the most important local resource. Investment in skills training,
knowledge acquisition and conscientisation is of long lasting
benefit to the community.
Accessible Financing. Having
credit available from credit institutions outside the community
enables the investment in increased production and diversifies
the village economy by enabling both individuals and groups to
go into economic ventures that supplement agricultural income.
Loans versus grants are a venture in selfidentity and selfdependence.
Increased Local Investment. The
encouragement of local investment as part of a project through
family savings, the creation of village funds and credit associations
increases the economic vitality of a community. This provides
an alternative to external financing for situations where local
priorities do not fit institutional criteria (especially true
in regard to funding for social and cultural activities). It permits
people to build up over a longer period a locallycontrolled
capital pool that will balance their use of external credit structures.
Emphasised Local Production and Marketing. Activities
built on local resources, skills and markets are generally more
stable and give the people more control.
Continuous Training. Skills
training on a continuous basis is a necessary aspect of building
up human resources.
Local Control. Appropriate
forms of local organisation enable access to outside resources
in a way that gives the group greater control than would be the
case if they arranged things individually. It is the occasion
for the group to take practical steps toward its objectives. This
is possible by empowering existing structures or by the creation
of new organisations.
Implications
Of the three focal points, selfdependence will
take the most time to be realised. The practitioner therefore
must think in terms of 10 to 20 years as well as tomorrow. The
hardest work in this arena is the image shift required of the
people and the practitioner. It can be thought of as a balanceofpayments
question: everything brought from outside the local area is an
import and must be paid for in cash, which means producing something
for sale outside the local area. The practitioner does not decide
for the group, but helps them be aware of the implications of
a deficit in such a flow.
Selfdependence means emphasising "prosumption"
(production for one's own consumption) and selfhelp. For
example selfbuilt housing means the people have better ideas
how to maintain their dwellings. Parents as teachers means the
education system is less dependent on state support. It means
focusing on supplementing incomes from multiple sources
rather than fulltime single job employment and the consequent
narrow focus on conventional industrial plants.
The practitioner needs to help the community to examine
every aid programme from the perspective of its short and long
term consequences. It means appreciating that this is an arena
where no one is clear and understanding that every programme is
an experiment. Some will eventually be abandoned, but will have
provided income for a time. Some will be useful in enabling the
community to learn. Perhaps this is the one implication for the
practitioner: make sure the people are evaluating what they are
doing and trying new things out of these [earnings. Indeed the
capacity to "work it out together" is selfdependence.
Concerns
Concerns for the practitioner include:
Restricted credit access. Credit schemes that favour the large farmer to the disadvantage of the poorer sections of the society. Procedures have discouraged poor farmers, women and landless people from getting credit.
Bribes required by some officials that can make government schemes too costly for the poor.
Inequitable access to land, water and forest resources.
Short term subsidies from welfare organisations or governments are often detrimental to motivation.
Disregard for local savings and investment, while encouraging credit from large institutions, creates a dependence on credit institutions and money lenders.
Establishing production units for employment which are dependent on import of raw materials weakens the economy of the local community. Similarly dependence on "export" markets (meaning beyond the local or regional level) makes the local economy vulnerable.
The underdeveloped markets for rural products.
In calculating the costs of a programme, the cost (both financial and expertise) of maintenance and repair are often disregarded.
Programmes designed to meet criteria for outside funding.
Few evaluation and monitoring techniques for measuring progress toward selfdependence.
Difficulty of enabling people to work through lifestyle shifts needed to take advantage of new or appropriate technology (different cooking hours for use of solar cookers, need for poor households to coordinate finances and house construction to build lowcost biogas plants.
Negative image of the "old" way of doing things such as abandonment of breastfeeding for bottles and twigs for toothbrushes.
In rural areas in moredeveloped countries
especially, overdependence on selling to national or global market
and neglecting the building up of healthy diversified regional
markets.
SELFIDENTITY
Selfidentity can be enhanced in any programme.
In agriculture or health or housing, a project which begins by
affirming the traditional wisdom of the community and inviting
its people to reflect on changes from that perspective gives the
people a way to participate in innovation as an evolutionary decision,
not an eitheror choice. The capacity to make critical choices
is foundational to selfidentity. Efforts at economic selfdependence
will be unsuccessful if the people involved have a limited sense
of their own worth. Many programmes teaching economic skills mentioned
that this negative selfimage is the major handicap to be
overcome. Recognition of individual achievement and community
service is also important. For people who have felt themselves
victimised for years by an educational system that taught skills
that were of no use to them. A certificate at the end of a health
worker training course or a literacy class, even if it has no
official significance can be the first mark of recognition in
their life that they have achieved something in society.
Operational Characteristics
Moving from Passive Acceptance to Active Involvement.
A greater sense of mastery over one's
own destiny (as individuals and members of a community), a sense
that decisions can be made, circumstances changed and lives improved
is fundamental to sustainable development of, by and for the people.
Blending Cultural Continuity and Change. A
sense of the worth of one's cultural heritage and the capacity
to respond creatively to the intrusion of other cultural perspectives
is necessary for people to be controllers of the change process
not victims of it..."To do development means to bring about
change (Traditional) societies have values that the modern world
is struggling to recreate today. To try to preserve those values
as they are is in the long run leading to their own destruction
as (they) must adapt to the modern world if they are to survive.
The question of how to preserve the gifts of a society while engaging
in development is at the core of any endeavour of human development"
(field visit report, XISS) (SA7).
Process, Not a State. No
community just is. Communities and societies are always moving
and adapting. The concern of the local practitioner is for the
community to know that it is evolving and to enable it to decide
as comprehensively as possible what opportunities to accept and
which to decline.
Awakening the Need for Collectivity. Solidarity
within a group comes when the people become aware they are a group
and have power together. However obvious this may be to an outsider,
even to some within the community, until thecommunity becomes
aware of this fact, creating permanent structures (a registered
cooperative, for example) will be premature.
Sensitising the Group. It
is the group's discovery of its' common heritage and what is happening
to them that creates a context for initiating their own development.
This conscientisation is a process of selfdiscovery. It
is a method rather than a curriculum for indoctrination.
Builds on Existing Culture.
Traditional patterns of selfhelp and common action are powerful
bases for implementation of programmes of change.
Recognises Individual Worth.
Group acknowledgment of each individual's contribution strengthens
the whole group and counteracts the tendency to determine selfworth
by material accumulation alone.
Implications
There are many practical ways the sense of selfidentity
can be fostered. Activities that directly strengthen cultural
identity including festivals, workdays, preservation and development
of traditional crafts. It is important for the group or community
to articulate its own version of its history. Such a project requires
that the community interpret past events and the act of presentation
whether as book, song, dance, or drama provides a symbol of that
identity. A number of projects, especially those dealing with
ethnic minorities involved parents and community elders in designing
and teaching a cultural heritage curriculum in the local school.
This approach increased the awareness of the adults in the community
of who they are and enabled them to decide what parts of their
tradition needed to be retained for the future. Another approach
is to emphasise special events as ways of letting the group or
community see its value in the opinion of others. Visits to other
villages and projects let the group see how others have approached
similar problems and been successful. The element of friendly
rivalry of, "if they can do it so can we", can be effective
as a motivating factor.
The list of possible activities is long, but the
implication for the rural practitioner is simple: never miss an
opportunity toreinforce the individual's and the community's
sense of selfworth. It means spending time organising "nonproductive"
events in the midst of an economic programme, of finding ways
for the people to do their own telling of the story about the
significance of what they are doing. It means challenging the
people to see their common cultural heritage. The focus on identity
does not mean the practitioner ignores inequities or tensions
within the community or group, but it does prepare the ground
for programmes that deal with them directly. This creates a climate
in the community for programmes, especially in economic development,
that benefit the disadvantaged to the exclusion of others relatively
better off (the Small Farmer Development Program, SA36,
for example).
Concerns
Concerns for the practitioner include:
The loss of confidence in the value and use of skills, customs, stories and art that results from change.
The acceptance of an inferior status in society as the unchangeable way of things.
The dependence of a group on others to find solutions for their problems, supply the resources for resolving them and provide staff to implement programmes.
The discrimination against groups within a society for reasons of religious differences, different ethnic background, social class, health (leprosy, retardation).
The failure to recognise and honour contributions to the community by individuals, especially those made by persons from an underclass or minority group.
The propensity of planners and workers, who
come from outside, to impose their values to problems they have
have identified and are seeking to resolve. This is especially
painful when the field worker is sensitive to the local situation
but has to implement an agency or departmental directive.
The projects and reports indicated at least six factors
that enabled the attainment of stated objectives:
To make this section more useful to the practitioner each of these factors is discussed in terms of:
Intent.
Content.
Concerns.
Options (from IERD project documentation).
PROJECT LEARNING PROCESSES
This accelerating factor was summarised in IERD working
papers as follows: "This keystone is concerned with image
education, general education and with specific skills training.
Image education equips people with winning images and allows the
impossible to be turned into the possible. General education is
continuing adult education: academic, artistic, vocational for
all. In the case of specific skills training, there is a need
for the transfer of ideas, technology and management skills. The
emphasis is as much on drawing out the human quality of life as
in equipping for economic intensification" (IERD Keystones
Paper summarising Rural Development Symposia).
Intent
Selfdependency. "In
order for village people themselves to control their economic
development, training is required in skills of production, purchasing,
marketing and management" (field visit reports). It is also
necessary to provide an increasing number of people in the community
with the management skills needed to plan, control flow of money,
organise community effort and relate to and negotiate with government
and other external structures.
Awareness. "To provide
appropriate formal and nonformal education in all areas
to promote awareness, selfrespect in every person, the broadening
of outlook and sensitising and informing them (Field visit reports).
Catalysis. To enable a
growing core of local leadership to seek out relevant information
for community efforts and transmit it effectively to the rest
of the community.
Content
Life Education. Basic
to development education is the understanding that every situation
can be a learning situation. Reflection in group settings on their
experience is one of the foundations of appropriate life education.
Issueorientation. "Approaching
the learning process from the starting point of some real issue
that distresses the people in order to have a motivated "study"
and to have a way to share the analytical process.. (for) the
people's organisations in the villages, the issueoriented
education helped them to evaluate critically their existing position
in the society" (Comprehensive Rural Operations Service Society,
CROSS) (SA25).
Continuing Education. The
process of learning in relation to development never stops. Nor
does the 'student body' become fixed. It is aimed at everyone.
Alternatives. Because
the lifejourney of each individual is unique it is important
to offer multiple options for training tailored to each of the
groups in the community. Many of these options will not be offered
as education but will fulfill that function.
Attitude Changes. "Training
helps people translate their vision into reality. It focuses on
selfimage, leadership development, skills acquisition and
local development methods" (field visit). Programmes which
raise the consciousness of the people change attitudes and provide
an incentive to acquire practical skills. skills seem to be most
effective.
Concerns
Nonparticipatory teaching style which prevents rural people's own experience being shared.
Skills training unrelated to local income opportunities.
Difficulty of engaging poorly educated parents in shaping children's education programmes.
General training programmes inadequate for disadvantaged.
Curriculum being taught without practice.
Training restricted to men only in many arenas.
Developing appropriate training in entrepreneurship, small industry, and services.
Limited understanding of legal rights and eligibility for government assistance.
Domination of village structures by those with education.
Inability to make use of technological innovations.
Limited skills in group consensusbuilding/organisation.
Options
Agricultural Improvement
Use of microcomputer to aid groups of dairy farmers .
Crop demonstrations in a farmer's field rather than a piece of land set aside by a university.
Master farmer training programme based on
farmer continuing to reside in and work his/her fields.
Youth Motivation and Training
Three to fiveday "camps" for youth to talk through concerns, plans for community involvement and to consider a "life of service".
Young farmers 'clubs.
Resident programmes of four to eight weeks for youth just before or after high school to help decide vocation.
Elders in community as a teaching resource for skills training and children's education.
For rural areas with low population density,
a "preschool in the home" with once a week teacherparent
day of running the programme.
Special Educational Events
"Handson" workshops to introduce people to solar energy.
Fiveday training course for women with little education.
Village Health Worker (VHW) training is based on actual weekly cases encountered at the centre or in the village.
Creation and use of dramas, role plays, song, dance, and other art to raise awareness.
A group assigned to analyse their own situation
or that of another village.
Other Suggestions
Handson experience and face to face encounters with people engaged in similar activities. Demonstration centres, master farmers, simulation games and all activities which emphasise the experiencing of a technique or situation are appropriate.
Involving adults in shaping the curriculum, management and teaching in the local primary and secondary school is an indirect mode of training the adults of a community.
Case studies of legal issues written by a village group to heighten awareness of legal rights and actual situation.
Communitycontrolled cable TV system linking small rural communities, including video training.
Residential demonstration and training centres for ecology where staff lifestyle is a demonstration of possibility.
VHW training as a means to accelerate the leadership development of a community's women.
Assign trainees to build a questionnaire to
survey the needs, send them to do research in the villages for
six months, months, return and work to implement the programmes.
Special Programmes
Women recruited for particular programmes need support with preservice training.
Field trips of rural women to the city and
urban women to the rural are awakening women to alternative solutions.
Economic Betterment
Providing training in skills not traditionally held by women is important in broadening the economic base and dealing with the imbalance in the participation of women in the community.
Improving the skills of women has increased
their bargaining power.
Development Involvement
Women's participation in planning out child and youth programmes has been found to be a path to their broader participation in decisions.
Women have been found to be effective extension
workers in environmental, water and sanitation matters as they
are more directly affected by programmes in these arenas.
Other Suggestions
Literacy programmes have been found to be more effective when the content of the curriculum related to the life the women live every day. The curriculum was designed locally with the input of experts through workshops.
Creating security schemes for women such as maternity benefits, widowhood and death assistance and health schemes. Literacy programmes that were taught during the working hours of an economic venture such as bidi making were also found to be effective.
Encouraging the participation of women from
a wide age spectrum has been found to be key in doing new programmes
and created a mutual understanding and trust.
PARTICIPATORY ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTORES
"One of the most basic factors is local people
participating in all aspects of determining their own development.
It consists of identifying their own needs and the basic planning
of their own development activities. This is followed with implementation
of the development plans. It includes building community organisation
structures that take into account geographicallyrelated
groups, communitywide decisionmaking and the creation
of selfhelp groups. Local people participate in upgrading
their development planning with training that increases their
potential" (IERD Working Papers)
Intent
Group Power. Enabling
people to tackle issues that they would not be able to deal with
singly. "By organising a structure for decisionmaking,
people get the opportunity to choose for changes in their life
and to be united enoughto come to an implementation of their
choice" (field visit report, CROSS) (SA25).
Inclusive Participation. Structuring
the participation of minorities and disadvantaged groups: "in
both the tribal communities and Harijan communities these associations
function to bring cohesion and community identity to otherwise
fragmented and isolated groups of people" (field visit report,
Action for Welfare and Awakening in the rural Environment, SA21).
Structural Linkage. A
way of for relating to outside sources of assistance in expertise,
advice and capital investment.
Content
Locally AppropriateLocally Designed. Part
of the process of developing solidarity and selfdependence
within the rural community is for the people to think through
and create the form of organisation to accomplish what they wish
to do. Since organising an effort is itself a skill to be learned
by action and reflection, it is best if early structuring of a
project is simple, flexible and informal.
Form Evolves. Organising
a project is best done as a process that creates structures as
the task demands and people's capacity to manage allows. Legal
forms established prematurely are hard to undo if they turn out
to be too restrictive. Early registration allows the more advantaged
or powerful factions to take control and nullify the participatory
dynamic the project sought to introduce. Similarly, whether to
use a singlepurpose or multipurpose form is best answered
over time. Singlepurpose forms are better for starting activities
and can evolve into multipurpose cooperatives as the members
develop greater managerial capacity.
Participation Broadens. A
local organisation can create appropriate ways for different groups
in the community to participate. Since projects rely on the willingness
of the people to be involved for their effectiveness, a form which
encourages rather than restricts participation is required.
LocalBased. In a
scheme built with the people to be benefitted themselves in charge,
the most local unit is the most important (landless labourers,
for instance). The other layers of organisation and support are
shaped to enable implementation of this unit's decisions, be it
the family, the village or a special group.
Planning/Action Focus. Such
organisations often begin as a gathering point for residents in
making plans for and scheduling implementation of their own development.
Concerns
Keeping project structures free from local politics.
Preventing takeover of leadership by economically powerful individuals or interest groups.
Maintaining flexibility and avoiding bureaucracy that hinders participation, especially of the less educated.
Sensitivity to traditional ways of organisation
Maintaining cohesiveness and sense of common purpose.
- Inflexibility of national scheme rules applied locally.
Insuring that the poor benefit.
Options
Agricultural Groups
Registered society of small farmers formed around tube well they constructed and own in common.
Dairycooperatives of small producers many of whom do not own land, backup up by animators from national structures.
Creating small groups of five to thirty farmers to receive agricultural credit collectively and to be accountable together for its repayment.
Farmers' markets with coordinating committees made up of producers and consumers who establish prices before each market is held, eliminating both middlemen and price competition between producers.
Offering 3 officially recognised kinds of
group farming to allow for individual preference: joint, coop.,
entrusted.
Community Improvements
Community improvement associationsvoluntary groupings of residents apart from the local political structures mobilise village consensus across political divisions.
Opencourt conflictresolving tribunal that exists exclusively through the consent of the people and which operates out of the presupposition of reconciling parties to a dispute. Through the open nature of its proceedings it educates all the other members of the tribal group (ethnic minority) and involves them in determining the application of traditional values to modern situations.
Working committee for national village competition that includes both men and women and has representatives of all clubs and groups in the village.
Housing trusts and cooperatives of eight to
thirty families who operate as one unit for purchase of building
materials to construct houses for the members and go out of existence
once the dwellings are completed.
Consensus Methods
Precooperative groups wellestablished before applying for linkage to the larger system or for official registration.
Short term organisationsstudy groups, etc.
A village health committee that selects and pays for a village health care worker, and relates to a larger medical centre for advice and support.
"Threetier" system, based on villageselected health worker who is supported by regular visits of a mobile medical team led by a nurse sometimes with a doctor, and a medical centre to which serious illnesses or other health problems can be referred. The key is that the village health worker is the basis and is chosen by the village.
Threetier system with village association,
cluster committee and block committee (about 100 villages) as
a way of organising voluntary development efforts. The NGO involved
then works with the villages in implementing the models they have
created.
Existing Organisations
Using local organisations like religious groups or schools as the basis for initiating a project like planting trees, a local committee to ensure the ongoing care and a handicapped person in the village as monitor.
Using the profits from a conventional farm cooperative to establish a social organisation to build a centre.
Using the entry point to a village made by health work, to bring about the establishment of a Farmers Club.
Using an existing network of local organisations
(churches, women's clubs) as the implementing structure for preventive
health care programmes.
SelfHelp Groups
Creating organisations composed of the poorest in the area to qualify for government schemes which were not attainable by them individually.
Village level and cluster level meetings followed by visits and interviews, and initiation of programmes.
A network of social and economic enterprises whose functions are to serve the needs of the poor. Together they cover a wide range of needs.For the annual meeting, each enterprise must prepare three reports: a financial statement, a social balance sheet and a three year plan.
Creation of a comprehensive scheme including creches and kindergartens and a credit union for selfemployed women.
Creating a credit institution that will invest uniquely in a specific disadvantaged group's advancement and allows only members of that group as shareholders and depositors.
Forming village associations of landless people and linking these together in cluster committees. ;
Cooperatives based on a tribal or ethnic group that conduct their proceedings in that language and modify other aspects of the structure to suit the local situation
Family development plans for poor families prepared with them by an agency (farm clinic) that is trusted by but independent of a credit institution.
Establishing village welfare associations
which include one representative from each family and two agency
workers that meet monthly. Meetings of the associations from across
the region are held twice yearly.
Developing Leadership
A national (or area) scheme to initiate a local project which uses the regional project as a demonstration.
Some organisations provide for rotating leadership of meetings and an annual retirement of some members of the board with a period of disqualification before eligible for reelection for greater sharing of responsibility.
Villagelevel discussion and study groups
for graduates of a regional adult education centre.
BROADENING HORIZONS
Direct interchange and interaction among projects
and participants in development activities is an accelerating
factor in rural development. ''Information is both a resource
and a motivating factor. Community projects have found that regular
interchange and communication is a critical key to the development
effort. This can be informal communication, sharing what is happening
in the project, or regular news briefs that keep the community
updated on the total effort. Regular meetings have been critical
to rehearse common objectives and report on activities. Mass communication
programmes through radio, TV and newspapers keep an open system
of interchange between the project and the outside world"
(IERD working papers).
Intent
Integrative Dialogue. Discussion and planning groups on local regional and national levels remove barriers to effective cooperative action and break isolation of (groups) (Interest Group). Networking among communities and agencies reduces duplication of efforts and rivalries. ( Field visit reflection).
Context Expansion. Exposing rural populations and field workers to other perspectives and practical experiences gives familiarity with innovative possibilities and new insights into the project situation.
Indirect Encouragement. Experiencing
the commonness of issues and the resolve of other groups to deal
with them, as well as learning new ways to deal with them is motivating.
Content
Mutual Learning. A shared context that the process is one of mutual learning.
Culturally Appropriate. Methods and techniques to suit the cultural context involved.
Local to Global to Local. A flow of practical learnings from local action groups to a global interchange and to the local again.
Lateral Sharing. Scheduled events and visits with responsible persons engaged in similar projects.
Practical Learnings. Record
of group reflections which has agreedupon learnings for
future training and sharing with other projects as well as regular
review and revision by project participants.
Concerns
Ensuring that relevant information is available at the local level.
Initiating and accelerating localtolocal interchange
Overcoming isolation of projects from each other.
Avoiding experts dominating the interchange
process.
Options
Meetings and Conferences
Exchange conferences between rural workers.
Intensive residential seminars using participatory learning methods with crosssection of rural workers.
Semiannual or annual meetings of whole staff structured to allow for reflection on learnings of previous period as well as planning.
Rural Development Expositions where projects
have displays and audiovisual presentations.
Visits
Invitations to representatives of different approaches to speak at staff meetings.
Regular informal visits by field workers to
local project leaders.
Travel
Mobile team sharing experiences, one village with another.
Field visits to other projects.
Excursions for rural people to a variety of
projects, to encounter urban life, meet support agency personnel
receive training and/or see and discuss a relevant film or play.
Information Exchange
Video and cable TV producing programmes locally that can be shared with other communities via a community cable system or exchange of video cassettes.
Southsouth exchanges between rural groups.
Slide shows with taped commentary on a project that is aimed at telling details about the project not for publicity or fundraising.
Radio programmes that are produced in and from various rural locations.
Local newsletters distributed in the project
area and mailed to other projects/agencies.
Other Suggestions
Sports competitions, cultural festivals social gatherings between communities are used as easily acceptable ways of increasing interchange between villages.
Link roads make communication with others easier and faster.
Competitions for village beautification foster
intervillage visits
DEVELOPING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINKAGES
This key refers to enlisting the support and cooperation
of the sectors (public, private, voluntary) with the local project
people. It seeks the authorisation of the political and economic
power structures in carrying through a project. Projects have
found that the resources of the public and private sectors can
be involved in carrying through projects, whether the resources
are expertise, technology, or capital funding.
Intent
Services Delivery. "To
harness the support services of government agencies, nongovernment
agencies and banks for rural development" (Tata Steel Rural
Development Society, SA17).
Replication Acceleration. "A
vital role for a voluntary agency must be in sharing the experience
gained from its various activities with our country and society.
Effort must be made to build up a programme that can help small
voluntary agencies, development programmes, etc. With the expertise
available, we could contribute to the growth of similar activities
in various parts of our country" (Rural Unit for Health and
Social Affairs, SA27).
Eliciting Responsible Participation by the Other
Segments of Society. "Education of
richer and more powerful people in the country regarding the real
socioeconomic conditions and development needs to elicit
responsible participation by them" (Interest group).
Content
Coordinating Services. Coordinate
services in relation to local plans of all sectors influencing
the local situation whether that be various levels of government,
commerce or industry.
Regional Relationships. The
institutions at the regional level: government agencies, banks,
private corporations, and voluntary organisations and NGOs work
together to coordinate their actions at the village level.
Committed Individuals. "The
present socioeconomic structure is not very conducive for
the development of persons from the weaker segments. It is therefore
necessary to organise individuals from all segments of government,
industry, banking, medicine and social sciences who can help whenever
there are obstacles and difficulties from the present structure"
(India Development Service Integrated Rural Development, SA22).
Convergence Journey. The
convergence is not a final consummation but a coming together
of the various services from the earliest stages of and through
the development process. At the level of the community, the nutritionist,
the health worker, the sanitarian, the water supply technician,
and the preschool teacher worker have to learn to work together.
They need to be trained not only in techniques, but even more
strongly in their attitudes, and be exposed to one another's aims
and disciplines.
Global Fraternity. "Another
key approach seen in this project is the emphasis placed on building
a movement of human development beyond the project itself, thus
linking it with a national and global 'fraternity' of projects,
organisations, and dedicated people" (Bontoa Human Development
Project, SP2).
Concerns
Transforming images of "donor receiver", "expert ignorant", "source target" into one of "partnership"
Ensuring that the benefits of government programmes get to everyone not just to the clever or wellpositioned
Figuring out what the necessary linkages are
Timing delivery of services to be most enabling to the village.
Avoiding creating dependency relationships
on outside sources.
Options
Programmes
Education programmes to make the people aware of what government programmes/rural credit schemes are available.
Creation of "Human Development associations" at the village cluster level that include as members the village associations, branch managers of state banks, interested professionals, business representatives.
Health campsspecial events where the services of trained personnel who volunteer their time can be effectively made available to village populations.
A special wing of an NGO created to handle coordination with the local governments in the project area and to train officials in reorienting their approach to the people.
Having the linkage for an agricultural credit institution be performed by a mobile credit officer who visits the farmers who take out the loans in the village.
Linking service clubs in nearby towns with projects for help in delivering shortterm assistance.
Joint circuits where field workers from government
agencies and nongovernmental organisations make the rounds
of villages together to serve the residents in a more integrated
less bureaucratic way.
Other Suggestions
Having the permanent residence of the government technician in the community allows more flexible communication with the people and encourages their participation more easily.
"Great spheres" (clusters of villages) where horizontal and vertical linkages are improved.
Linking village women's groups with national
and international women's groups to provide helpful pressure for
policy changes or enforcement of existing rights.
DEVELOPING APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES
Technological innovations in every field of rural
development were displayed and discussed in New Delhi. A surprising
number of projects had specific programmes of developing ;appropriate
technology for rural situations. Technological innovation is an
accelerating factor in rural development.
Intent
Availability. Making available
to rural populations technology that eases their burden without
displacing them, saves energy, and costs little to
install or maintain.
Appropriateness to Local. Having
local people decide on what to accept and what to reject.
Adaptation. Using local
wisdom and technical expertise together to create design and adaptation.
Content
Information Access. Knowledge
of what sources are available for information and advice, ease
of access to them, costs and time involved and the capacity to
follow up.
User Participation in Design. A
system to engage the local users actively in the design stage
or in an adaptation.
Experimental Demonstration. Onsite
pilot experiments both expand the village's vision and provide
a relevant local test of adaptability.
Education for Use. Training
and general education that provides opportunity for users to test,
raise questions.
Concerns
Introduction of new technology unaccompanied by education that explores advantages and disadvantages.
Access to technology on an equitable basis for rich and poor, educated and uneducated.
Advances that are beyond range of many people in villages.
Working out the problems at the local level with people.
Nonconsideration of social factors, changes in food preparation required, displacement of certain occupations.
Getting technically capable people who will
consider the social factors and work at the local level.
Options
Introduce New Techniques
Making available
listings of major appropriate technology centres and their catalogues
to project groups.
Demonstration of New Ways
Demonstration subcentres that take the technology to where the people in the villages around have easy access.
Intensive effort to enable acceptance of new
technology in one local area and then wider publicity of the usage
of the new techniques by the new users themselves.
Local Inventiveness
Improvements to traditional crafts e.g. weaving rather than introduction of new trade because of available technology e.g. knitting, crocheting.
Involving women in design conversations regarding
subjects like water systems, farm labour, agricultural processing,
energy saving or stove design.
The following is a selected list of the innovations
displayed at the Central International Event in India.
AGRICULTURE
Honey and wax refining (Kenya) .
Oneacre mixed farm providing adequate income and nutrition for a family.
Natural farming (no chemicals) .
Natural pesticide manufacture.
Communityrun tree nurseries including seedgathering.
Sericulture for landless workers.
Solar irrigation pump.
New fodder crops including fodder trees like subabul.
Hydroponic vegetable growing.
Vegetable dryer.
Water pumps.
RURAL EDUCATION AND LEARNING
Video tape.
Health teaching aids made from local materials.
Computer and video disc.
Mobile creche .
TV satellite system for reaching rural areas.
TV, talebooks and radio as part of a
nationwide selftraining scheme.
HEALTH CARE
ORT (Oral Rehydration Therapy).
Ayurvedic medicines.
Yoga for treatment of hypertension, asthma.
Herbal medicines.
Household soakpits.
Household cisterns and waterjars.
HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENT
Ventilation improvements.
Nubian vault .
Cinva ram for sundried mud bricks with a five per cent cement content.
Different mixes of mortar for different climate conditions.
Use of undersized wood (roundwood) for framing, cladding
and interior finishing.
Bamboo housing techniques.
Geodesic dome designs made of bamboo.
Biogas installations of various types.
Varied active and passive solar techniques.
Fishcuring: improved oven
Smokeless stoves.
Carbon refrigerator.